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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean oceans. Comprising over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guinea, Indonesia is the world's largest archipelagic state and the 14th-largest country by area, at . With over 280 million people, Indonesia is the world's fourth-most-populous country and the most populous Muslim-majority country. Java, the world's most populous island, is home to more than half of the country's population.
Indonesia operates as a presidential republic with an elected legislature and consists of 38 provinces, nine of which have special autonomous status. Jakarta, the largest city, is the world's second-most-populous urban area. Indonesia shares with Papua New Guinea, Timor-Leste, and East Malaysia, as well as with Singapore, Peninsular Malaysia, Vietnam, Thailand, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and India. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity.
The Indonesian archipelago has been a valuable region for trade since at least the seventh century, when Sumatra's Srivijaya and later Java's Majapahit kingdoms engaged in commerce with entities from mainland China and the Indian subcontinent. Over the centuries, local rulers assimilated foreign influences, leading to the flourishing of Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms. Sunni Islam traders and Sufism scholars later brought Islam, and European powers fought one another to monopolise trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku Islands during the Age of Discovery. Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism, Indonesia proclaimed its independence on 17 August 1945. Since then, it has faced challenges such as separatism, corruption, and natural disasters, alongside democratisation and rapid economic growth.
Indonesian society comprises hundreds of ethnic and linguistic groups, with Javanese people being the largest. The nation's identity is unified under the motto Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, defined by a national language, cultural and religious pluralism, a history of colonialism, and rebellion against it. A newly industrialised country, Indonesia's economy ranks as the world's 17th-largest by nominal GDP and the 7th-largest by PPP. As the world's third-largest democracy and a middle power in global affairs, the country is a member of several multilateral organisations, including the United Nations, World Trade Organization, G20, MIKTA, BRICS and a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement, ASEAN, East Asia Summit, APEC and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.
After 1900, Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and native nationalist groups adopted it for political expression. Adolf Bastian of the University of Berlin popularised the name through his book italic=yes. The first native scholar to use the name was Ki Hajar Dewantara, who established a press bureau in the Netherlands, Indonesisch Pers-bureau, in 1913.
Around 2,000 BCE, Austronesian peoples began arriving in Southeast Asia from the island of Taiwan, gradually displacing native Melanesians to the far eastern part of the archipelago as they spread east, and would eventually form the majority of Indonesia's modern population. Favourable agricultural conditions and advancements like Paddy field by the 8th century BCE enabled the growth of villages and kingdoms by the first century CE. The archipelago's strategic location fostered inter-island and international exchange with civilisations from the Indian subcontinent and mainland China, profoundly influencing Indonesian history and culture through trade.
By the 7th century CE, the Srivijaya naval kingdom thrived on trade, adopting Hindu and Buddhist influences. The 8th to 10th centuries saw the rise and decline of the Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram Kingdom dynasties, leaving monumental legacies like the Borobudur and Prambanan temples. After the failed Mongol invasion of Java in the late 13th century, the Hindu Majapahit kingdom rose to dominate much of the archipelago under Gajah Mada's leadership—a period often called the "Golden Age" of Indonesian history. Islam arrived in the 13th century in northern Sumatra, and following gradual adoption in other islands, it became the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the 16th century, blending with pre-existing traditions to form a distinct Islamic culture, particularly in Java.
During World War II, the Japanese invasion and occupation of the Indies ended Dutch rule and encouraged Indonesia's independence movement.Robert Elson, The idea of Indonesia: A history (2008) pp 1–12 Only two days after Japan's surrender in August 1945, Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta issued the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence, and they became the country's first president and vice-president, along with Sutan Sjahrir as Prime Minister. The Netherlands attempted to re-establish their rule, prompting the start of Indonesia's war of independence against the Dutch. The conflict lasted until 1949, when the Dutch recognised Indonesian independence in the Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference following international pressure. Despite political, social, and sectarian divisions, Indonesians found unity in their fight for independence.
Indonesia was the country worst affected by the 1997 Asian financial crisis, which brought out widespread discontent with the New Order's corruption and political suppression and ultimately ended Suharto's rule. In 1999, East Timor seceded after a controversial 25-year occupation following Indonesia's 1975 invasion. Since 1998, Indonesia has strengthened democracy by granting regional autonomy and holding the first direct presidential election in 2004.
Political, economic and social instability and terrorism were persistent in the 2000s. The economy has performed strongly since 2007, although corruption remains a chronic issue. (2019). 9789462528192, Atlantis Press. ISBN 9789462528192 Relations among the diverse population are mostly harmonious, but sectarian discontent and violence remain problematic in some areas. A political settlement to a separatist insurgency in Aceh was achieved in 2005.
The country features diverse topography, including towering mountains, vast lakes, and extensive river systems. At , Puncak Jaya is Indonesia's highest peak, while Lake Toba in Sumatra, covering , is the largest lake. The country's major rivers, primarily in Kalimantan, include Kapuas River, Barito River and Mahakam River, serving as vital transportation and communication routes for remote riverine communities.
Several studies consider Indonesia to be at severe risk from the projected effects of climate change, including a temperature rise of by 2050 due to unreduced emissions. This warming could intensify droughts, disrupt rainfall patterns critical to agriculture, and increase occurrences of food shortages, diseases, and wildfires. Rising sea levels would also threaten densely populated coastal regions, and impoverished communities are expected to be disproportionately affected by climate change.
The archipelago has witnessed several powerful volcanic eruptions with global repercussions. A massive supervolcano erupted with a maximum volcanic explosivity index (VEI) of 8 at present-day Lake Toba around 74,000 BCE, causing a global volcanic winter, cooling the climate, and possibly influencing human evolution. The eruption of Mount Tambora in 1815, the most recently confirmed VEI-7 eruption, made much of the Northern Hemisphere without summer in 1816. The eruption of Mount Krakatoa in 1883, a VEI-6 eruption, produced the loudest sound in recorded history, with additional effects around the world years after the event. Recent catastrophic disasters due to seismic activity include the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the 2018 Sulawesi earthquake.
The country also boasts of coastline, featuring diverse sea and coastal ecosystems, such as dunes and mangroves, as well as coral reefs in the Coral Triangle that harbour the highest diversity of coral reef fish globally, with over 2,000 species. The Wallace Line, described by English naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace, marks the biogeographical divide between Asian and Australasian species, with the region between the Wallace and (called Wallacea) hosting unique biodiversity as described in Wallace's 1869 book, The Malay Archipelago. Eighty-three percent of Southeast Asia's old-growth forests are located in Indonesia.
Indonesia faces severe environmental challenges due to extensive deforestation, peatland destruction, and over-exploitation of resources, driven by industries such as logging, plantations and agriculture since the 1970s, and in most recent years, palm oil. (2006). 9789791518802, Forest Peoples Programme. ISBN 9789791518802 Forest cover declined from 87% in 1950 to 48% in 2022, highlighting the country as a leading forest-based emitter of greenhouse gases. These issues are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance. They also threaten indigenous and endemic species, with the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) listing many as critically endangered, such as the Bali myna, Sumatran orangutan, and Javan rhinoceros. Environmental degradation has prompted some academics to label these activities as ecocide. (2023). 9782384760459, Atlantis Press. ISBN 9782384760459
Indonesia's conservation framework includes 55 national parks, covering around 9% of the country's surface area. Among these, nine are predominantly marine parks, with six recognised as World Heritage Sites, seven as part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves and five wetlands of international importance under the 1971 Ramsar Convention. Notably, Indonesia has over 100 marine protected areas spanning 15.7 million hectares as of 2012, and these are managed by the Ministry of Forestry and local governments. Previous targets included reaching 20 million hectares by 2020 under former President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono's 2009 initiative and 10% of territorial waters, or 31 million hectares.
The People's Consultative Assembly ( Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat, MPR) is Indonesia's highest representative body, responsible for amending the constitution, inaugurating and impeaching the president, and formalising state policies.Chapter II, Article 3, 3rd Clause of the 1945 Constitution. It consists of two houses: the People's Representative Council ( Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, DPR), which has 580 members and handles legislation and executive oversight, and the Regional Representative Council ( Dewan Perwakilan Daerah, DPD), which has 152 members and focuses on regional matters. Since 1998, reforms have significantly enhanced the DPR's governance functionality. The DPD represents the interests of the diverse regions of Indonesia.Chapter VIIA, Article 22D of the 1945 Constitution.
Indonesia’s judiciary includes several key institutions. The Supreme Court ( Mahkamah Agung) is the highest judicial authority, handling final appeals and case reviews. The Constitutional Court ( Mahkamah Konstitusi) addresses constitutional and political matters, while the country's Religious Court ( Pengadilan Agama) oversees Sharia personal law cases. Additionally, the Judicial Commission ( Komisi Yudisial) monitors judicial performance.
In 1955, the first general election was held to elect members of the DPR and the Constitutional Assembly ( Konstituante). At the most recent elections in 2024, eight political parties secured representation in the DPR, with a parliamentary threshold of 4% of the national vote. At the national level, Indonesians did not elect a President until 2004. Since then, the President has been elected for a five-year term, as are the party-aligned members of the DPR and the non-partisan DPD. Beginning with the 2015 local elections, elections for governors and mayors have occurred on the same date. In 2013, the Constitutional Court ruled that legislative and presidential elections would be held simultaneously, starting in 2019.
The village level is the lowest administrative unit but significantly influences daily life. Village governments are led by elected heads ( lurah or kepala desa) and handle local matters. Since the start of regional autonomy implementation in 1999, regencies and cities have become key administrative units responsible for most government services. Nine provinces (Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, and the six provinces in Papua) are granted a special autonomous status ( otonomi khusus) from the central government. A conservative Islamism, Aceh has the right to apply aspects of sharia law. Yogyakarta uniquely retains its pre-colonial monarchy, with its Sultan and Pakualaman serving as governor and vice governor, while the provinces in Papua are granted special autonomy to address separatist tensions, accelerate development, and provide Papuans with greater self-governance, aiming to integrate the region more equally with the rest of Indonesia.
As the largest country in Southeast Asia and a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Indonesia considers ASEAN the cornerstone of its foreign policy. Indonesia has actively supported Palestine while refraining from formal diplomatic relations with Israel. However, the two countries maintain discreet ties. Since the start of the 21st century, Indonesia has built deep relations with China, primarily relating to investments in infrastructure and trade, while at the same time maintaining a strategic partnership with the United States, focusing on economic cooperation, security, and counterterrorism efforts.
Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950 and is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) and the East Asia Summit. (2015). 9781137397416, Springer. ISBN 9781137397416 Indonesia is also a signatory to the ASEAN Free Trade Area agreement, the Cairns Group, and the World Trade Organization (WTO). Indonesia has been a humanitarian and development aid recipient since the late 1960s, but it recently established its own foreign aid agency in 2019. (2024). 9782384762354, Atlantis Press. ISBN 9782384762354 The country also plays a role in maintaining international peace and security, deploying thousands of military and police personnel to multiple United Nations peacekeeping missions since 1957, including in Lebanon, the MONUSCO, and Mali.
Since independence, Indonesia has struggled to maintain unity against separatist movements and insurgencies, notably in Aceh and Papuan conflict. While the former ended peacefully in 2005, the latter has continued amid the implementation of regional autonomy and well-documented human rights abuses by the TNI, including extrajudicial killings, forced disappearances and restrictions on freedom of expression, as reported by Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and the UNHRC. Indonesia's historical military engagements include conflicts with the Netherlands over Dutch New Guinea, opposition to the British-backed creation of Malaysia ( Konfrontasi), the anti-communist mass killings, and the invasion of East Timor, which was Indonesia's largest military operation.Indonesia. Department of Foreign Affairs. Decolonization in East Timor. Jakarta: Department of Information, Republic of Indonesia, 1977. . (1984). 9780862322281, Zed Books. ISBN 9780862322281
Indonesia has a documented history of racial discrimination and conflicts, particularly against Chinese Indonesians and Papuans, which have at times escalated into violence, notably the anti-Chinese riots in 1998 and the ongoing Papua conflict since 1962. Other minorities, such as the LGBTQ, also face challenges, where a rapid surge of anti-LGBTQ rhetoric has been observed since the mid-2010s after relative obscurity on the topic in the decades prior. Discrimination against religious minorities is also common.
Issues regarding free speech and the right to assembly are prevalent despite constitutional protections.Chapter XA, Article 28E, 3rd Clause of the Amended 1945 Constitution. Laws such as the Electronic Information and Transactions ( Informasi dan Transaksi Elektronik, ITE) Law are often used to criminalise dissent, with critics and activists facing charges for expressing opinions online. Peaceful protests, particularly those addressing sensitive issues such as indigenous rights in Papua or environmental concerns, are frequently met with a heavy-handed response from law enforcement. The government occasionally imposes restrictions on assembly permits, particularly for those critical of authorities or advocating rights.
The economic structure has shifted significantly over time, transitioning from agriculture in the 1950s and 1960s to gradual industrialisation and urbanisation from the late 1960s to the 1980s. Falling oil prices in the 1980s prompted diversification into manufactured exports, resulting in substantial economic growth (the GDP rose at an average rate of 7.1%) and poverty reduction from 40% to 11%. However, the economy took a severe hit during the Asian economic crisis in the late 1990s, when the GDP fell by 13%, inflation reached 78%, and GDP grew by only 0.8% in 1999. Recovery began in the early 2000s, with prudent banking regulations, better monetary and fiscal policies and flexible exchange rates, resulting in growth rates between 4% and 6% since 2004. These factors, coupled with strong domestic consumption, helped Indonesia weather the 2008 financial crisis. The COVID-19 pandemic in the early 2020s caused a recession, but the economy rebounded within a year.
Indonesia's abundant natural resources, including nickel, coal, and petroleum, dominate its export portfolio. It imports refined and crude petroleum and vehicle parts, with major trade partners including China, the United States, Japan, Singapore, India, Malaysia, South Korea, and Thailand. Owing to plentiful rainfall, sunshine and fertile soil, Indonesia is a major agricultural country, ranking among the leading producers of palm oil, rubber, coffee, tea, cassava, rice, wheat, coconut oil, and tobacco. Despite these resources and decades of development, disparities in wealth, employment and economic opportunities persist between western and eastern Indonesia.
The tourism industry thrives on Indonesia's natural and cultural wealth. The country boasts a well-preserved natural ecosystem, with rainforests covering 57% of its land area (225 million acres). Popular natural destinations include the rainforests of Sumatra and Kalimantan, particularly the Orangutan wildlife reserves. Indonesia also has one of the world's longest coastlines, stretching . Cultural tourism features prominently, with attractions like the ancient Borobudur and Prambanan temples, (2025). 9788776941734, NUS Press Singapore. ISBN 9788776941734 the Toraja highlands, and the cultural festivals of Bali.
Indonesia is home to ten UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including Komodo National Park and the Yogyakarta. Additionally, 21 other sites are on the tentative list, such as Bunaken National Park and the Raja Ampat Islands. Historical tourism is also a major draw, with attractions like the colonial heritage of the Dutch East Indies in Jakarta and Semarang, as well as the royal palaces of Pagaruyung and Ubud Palace.
Indonesia has a history of manufacturing military and commuter aircraft and is the only country in Southeast Asia to do so. Its state-owned aerospace company, Indonesian Aerospace ( PT. Dirgantara Indonesia, PTDI), has supplied components to Boeing and Airbus and co-developed the CN-235 with Spain's CASA. Former President B. J. Habibie, an aerospace engineer before getting into politics, played a key role in advancing the country's aerospace research. Recently, Indonesia has been collaborating with South Korea on the 4.5-generation fighter jet KAI KF-21 Boramae. (2021). 9788932201481, Korea Institute for International Economic Policy. ISBN 9788932201481
Indonesia's space program, managed by the National Institute of Aeronautics and Space ( Lembaga Penerbangan dan Antariksa Nasional, LAPAN), launched its first satellite ( Palapa) in 1976 with assistance from the United States, making Indonesia the first developing country with a satellite system. As of 2024, Indonesia has launched 19 satellites for communication and other purposes. Recently, the government licensed Starlink to provide internet connectivity to rural and underserved regions.
Railways are primarily located in Java and parts of Sumatra and Sulawesi, serving freight and passenger transport, including commuter and inter-city rail services like those in KRL Commuterline and Yogyakarta. In the late 2010s, rapid transit systems were introduced in Jakarta and Palembang, with more planned for other cities. In collaboration with China, Indonesia inaugurated its first high-speed rail ( Whoosh) in 2023, connecting Jakarta and Bandung. It was the first such system in Southeast Asia and the Southern Hemisphere.
Air and sea transport also play significant roles. Soekarno–Hatta International Airport, Indonesia's largest, served 54 million passengers in 2024, followed by Ngurah Rai and Juanda International Airports. Garuda Indonesia, the national flag carrier since 1949, is one of the world's leading airlines and a member of the global airline alliance SkyTeam. The Port of Tanjung Priok, the country's busiest and most advanced, handles over 50% of Indonesia's trans-shipment cargo traffic.
Indonesia's energy mix is still dominated by non-renewable sources, with coal being the majority, followed by natural gas and oil. Renewables, including geothermal (5%), hydropower (7%), and solar (1%), make up a smaller but growing share. The potential for renewable energy is immense, particularly geothermal, where the country ranks as one of the world's largest producers. The country is one of the world's largest producers and exporters of coal and a significant exporter of liquefied natural gas (LNG).
The government plans to transition towards greener energy sources and achieve net-zero carbon emissions by 2050. In the latest energy plan in early 2025, the government aims for a 71-gigawatt expansion in power capacity by 2034, with a focus on renewables. However, the country has insufficient infrastructure for renewable energy, faces difficulties in providing electricity access to remote areas, and continues to rely heavily on coal. (2017). 9789295111196 ISBN 9789295111196
Indonesia's population distribution is highly uneven, reflecting its diverse geography and varying levels of development. It ranges from the bustling megacity of Jakarta to remote and uncontacted tribes in Papua. As of 2023, approximately 59% of Indonesians live in urban areas, with Jakarta as the country's primate city and the second-most populous urban area globally, housing over 34 million people. Additionally, about 8 million Indonesians reside overseas, with large communities in Malaysia, the Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong, the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia.
The official language, Indonesian, is a variant of Malay language based on its prestige dialect, which became the archipelago's lingua franca over the course of centuries. It was first Youth Pledge and gained official status in 1945, following independence, under the name Bahasa Indonesia, and has since been widely adopted due to its use in education, media, business, and governance. While nearly all Indonesians speak Bahasa, most also speak one of over 700 local languages, often as their first language. These are predominantly from the Austronesian family, with over 270 Papuan languages in eastern Indonesia. Javanese is the most widely spoken local language and holds co-official status in Yogyakarta.
The Dutch people and other European-descended populations like the Indo people, though significant during colonial times, always represented a small fraction of the population, numbering only around 200,000 in 1930. The Dutch language never gained substantial traction due to the Dutch colonial focus on commerce rather than cultural integration. Dutch fluency exists today in small numbers among some older generations and legal professionals, as specific legal codes remain available only in that language.
Before the arrival of major world religions, Indonesia's natives practised animism and dynamism, worshipping ancestral spirits and believing in the supernatural ( hyang) inhabiting natural elements, such as large trees, mountains and forests. (2025). 9781576077702, ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781576077702 Such beliefs are common to the Austronesian peoples. These indigenous traditions, such as Sundanese Sunda Wiwitan, Javanese Kejawèn and Dayak's Kaharingan, have profoundly influenced modern religious practices, resulting in a less orthodox and syncretic form of faith like Javanese abangan, Balinese Hinduism and Dayak Christianity.Magnis-Suseno, F. 1981, Javanese Ethics and World-View: The Javanese Idea of the Good Life, PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta, 1997, pp. 15–18 ,
Hinduism reached the archipelago in the 1st century CE,Jan Gonda, The Indian Religions in Pre-Islamic Indonesia and their survival in Bali, in followed by Buddhism in the 6th century. Both religions shaped Indonesia's religious history through influential empires like Majapahit, Srivijaya, and Sailendra, leaving a lasting cultural impact that remains today despite both no longer being the majority. Islam arrived as early as the 8th centuryGerhard Bowering et al. (2012), The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought, Princeton University Press, , pp. xvi through Sunni and Sufi traders from the Indian subcontinent and South Arabia, mixing with local cultural and religious traditions to form a distinct Islamic culture ( Pesantren). By the 16th century, Islam had become the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra, resulting from the blend of trade, dawah, such as by the Wali Sanga and Chinese explorer Zheng He, and military campaigns by several sultanates.Taufiq Tanasaldy, Regime Change and Ethnic Politics in Indonesia, Brill Academic, Gerhard Bowering et al., The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought, Princeton University Press,
Catholicism and Protestantism were later introduced through missionary efforts during European colonisation, such as by Jesuit Francis Xavier, though the spread of the former faced challenges under the VOC and Dutch colonial era policies. The latter's primary branches include Calvinism and Lutheranism, though a multitude of other denominations exist in the country. A small Jewish presence has existed in the archipelago, primarily descendants of Dutch and Iraqi Jews, though their numbers have dwindled since independence in 1945. Only a few Jews remain today, mostly in major cities like Jakarta, Manado and Surabaya. One of the remaining synagogues, Sha'ar Hashamayim, is located in Tondano, North Sulawesi, around 31 km from Manado.
Religion is central to the lives of the overwhelming majority of Indonesians, reflecting its integral role in the country's society, culture, and identity. Interfaith relations are significantly shaped by political leadership and civil society, guided by the first principle of Pancasila, which emphasises belief in a supreme deity and religious tolerance. While it promotes harmony, religious intolerance continues to be a recurring issue.
Government spending on education accounted for approximately 1.3% of GDP in 2023. In 2022, there were 4,481 higher education institutions in the country, including universities, Islamic institutions, and open universities. The University of Indonesia, Gadjah Mada University, and the Bandung Institute of Technology are the top three universities in the country, all of which rank within the world's top 300 universities.
Issues regarding quality and equity are persistent, particularly urban-rural disparities, inadequate school infrastructure, and a lack of qualified teachers. The system also lags behind international benchmarks, such as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), where Indonesian students consistently rank near the bottom in reading, mathematics, and science. The higher education sector has been struggling with underfunding, low quality, limited research output and a mismatch between graduates' skills and labour market needs.
Government spending on healthcare accounted for 2.69% of GDP in 2022. Primary healthcare is delivered through puskesmas, hospitals, and private clinics. While the healthcare system lags behind those in ASEAN neighbours like Malaysia and Singapore, significant public health outcomes have been achieved, such as an increase in life expectancy (from 54.9 years in 1973 to 71.1 years in 2023), a decline in child mortality (from 15.5 deaths per 100 live births in 1972 to 2.1 deaths in 2022), polio eradication in 2014, and decreasing cases of malaria.
Some chronic health issues persist, including Stunted growth that affects 21.6% of children under five according to a 2022 data. Low air quality, particularly in major cities, contributes to respiratory illnesses, while maternal and child health indicators remain areas of concern, with a Maternal death rate the third highest in the region. Additionally, Indonesia has one of the highest smoking rates globally (34.8% of adults), contributing to a high prevalence of non-communicable diseases like cardiovascular issues and lung cancer.
Discoveries of Megalithic art led to the flourishing of tribal art among the Nias, Batak, Asmat, Dayak, and Toraja communities, Violence and Serenity: Late Buddhist Sculpture from Indonesia p. 113 Archaeology: Indonesian Perspective: R.P. Soejono's Festschrift pp. 298–299 who utilised wood and stone as primary sculpting materials. From the 8th to the 15th centuries, the Javanese civilisation excelled in sophisticated stone sculpting and architecture, heavily influenced by the Hindu-Buddhist Dharmic culture. This period produced monumental works like the Borobudur and Prambanan temples.
With over 3,000 traditional dances, Indonesian dance forms have their origins in rituals and religious worship, such as the dance of witch doctors and Hudoq, as well as periods of Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic influence. While modern and urban dances shaped by Western, Japanese, and South Korean cultures are gaining popularity, traditional dances like those of Java, Bali, and Dayak remain a living tradition.
Indonesia's rich cultural history is also reflected in its diverse clothing styles. National costumes like batik and kebaya are widely recognised, with roots in Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese cultures.Jill Forshee, Culture and customs of Indonesia, Greenwood Publishing Group: 2006: . 237 pp. Traditional attire varies by region and province, such as the Batak ulos, Malay and Minangkabau songket, and Sasak ikat, and is commonly worn for ceremonies, weddings, and formal events.
The first film produced in the archipelago was Loetoeng Kasaroeng (1926), a silent film by Dutch director L. Heuveldorp, and the film industry expanded post-independence with Usmar Ismail's pioneering work in the 1950s. During the latter part of the Sukarno era in the 1960s, films were used to promote nationalism and anti-Western sentiment, while Suharto's New Order imposed censorship to maintain social order. Film productions peaked in the 1980s with notable titles such as Pengabdi Setan (1980), Tjoet Nja' Dhien (1988) and Warkop comedy films, but the industry declined in the next decade.
In the post-Suharto era, the industry saw a resurgence. Independent filmmakers tackled previously censored themes like race, religion, and love, producing notable films such as Kuldesak (1999) and Ada Apa dengan Cinta? (2002). The 2025 animated film Jumbo set box office records, becoming the most-watched Indonesian film with more than 10 million tickets sold. The Indonesian Film Festival ( Festival Film Indonesia), which gives out the Citra Award, has celebrated cinematic achievements since 1955.
Indonesian literature has roots in Sanskrit inscriptions from the 5th century and a strong oral tradition, while early modern literature originates in the Sumatran tradition. Traditional forms such as syair, pantun, hikayat, and babad dominate early prose and poetry, with notable works such as Syair Abdul Muluk, Hikayat Hang Tuah, Sulalatus Salatin, and Babad Tanah Jawi. The establishment of Balai Pustaka in 1917 marked a push to develop indigenous literature, leading to a literary Golden Age in the 1950s and 1960s. Influenced by the country's political and social landscape dynamics, modern literature includes works from notable figures like Chairil Anwar, Pramoedya Ananta Toer, and Ayu Utami.
Some popular dishes, such as nasi goreng, gado-gado, mie ayam, bakso, Satay, and soto, are ubiquitous and considered national dishes. The Ministry of Tourism, however, chose tumpeng as the official national dish in 2014, describing it as binding the diversity of various culinary traditions. Other popular dishes include rendang, one of the many Padang cuisine, along with dendeng and gulai. Another fermented food is oncom, which is similar in some ways to tempeh but uses a variety of bases (not only soy), created by different fungi, and is prevalent in West Java.
Other popular sports include boxing and basketball, which were part of the first National Games ( Pekan Olahraga Nasional, PON) in 1948. Sepak takraw and karapan sapi (bull racing) in Madura Island are some examples of Indonesia's traditional sports. In areas with a history of tribal warfare, mock fighting contests are held, such as caci in Flores and pasola in Sumba. Pencak silat is an Indonesian martial art that, in 2018, became one of the sporting events in the Asian Games, with Indonesia appearing as one of the leading competitors. In Southeast Asia, Indonesia topped the SEA Games medal table ten times since 1977, most recently in 2011.
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